In recent years, the equilibrium methods of physical chemistry have found increasing application in the solution of problems of applied chemistry encountered in the conditioning of water supplies. Largely through the efforts of McKinney (8) and Langelier (3), inconsistencies resulting from the use of older methods have been pointed out and new methods based on equilibrium considerations have been developed.
Water Softening and Conditioning Problems Solution by Chemical Equilibrium Methods
Authors: David H. Caldwell, Walter B. Lawrence
1951 Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Vol. 45, No.3